Realism
and especially classical realism is the only political thought to have a life
time of nearly 2.500 years. The main representatives of realism are Thucydides,
Machiavelli, Carl von Clausewitz, Waltz and Hans Morgenthau. This theory had
time to mature, showing that the main actor in politics is the state. The
ethical bases of classical realist thought are power, order, stability, balance
of power, interest and justice. All realists use these to explain their
theories and express each one according to the events of their time, in the international
and domestic scene.
Power
and the balance of power play a grand role in realism, since in the
international anarchical arena there is no place for error. Each state should
have power and if deemed necessary should try to maximize it, if this helps
with the stability and the survival of the state. This seems to leave little
space for morality, especially in difficult situations where survival is more
important than morality. Politicians need to choose between the evils they
face, choosing the lesser evil each time. Machiavelli believes that the Prince
should act with good deeds but if deemed necessary, he should be willing and
ready to act in a wicked way for the benefits of the state. This is the bases
of raison d’état (i.e. national interest over morality). Hobbes on the contrary
dismisses the idea of morality in international affairs. As Thrasymachus (in
Plato’s Republic), Schmitt and Hobbes believe “might makes right”.[1] So
we acknowledge that through Thucydides, Machiavelli and Hobbes, international
relations is understood as being amoral, where ethics cease to exist. Cohen on
the other hand believes that ‘universal moral rules do apply to international
relations’[2],
for example one state cannot go to war against a state that is not a threat.
Order
is a theme dealt by the central governing authority. Domestic and international
politics do not seem to be separate since they interact towards one action
taken by the state, for example war. Thucydides and Morgenthau agree with this
idea. Without order the community is easily driven to anarchy; as Aristotle
observed ‘law has no power to compel obedience beside the force of habit’
(Politics 1269a20).[3] This is
why stability needs to be insured domestically but also internationally. Stability
brings peace and development.
Another
factor in classical realism is the balance of power which can be achieved with
the military capability of each state and its alliances. This is a universal
element in international politics. We see through history that imbalance of
power and alliance can provoke war. This is a phenomenon which is seen
especially with great powers. When one great state shifts the balance towards
its interests, then the other superpower believes it is threatened, directly or
indirectly. This is the case with Athens and Sparta. Athens tried to maximize
its power by conquering islands (e.g. Melos, Melian Dialogue- where the strong
do what they will and the weak do as they must) and by increasing its allies.
This is what triggered Sparta in to going to war against Athens, believing that
this would ensure her existence. This is known as the Peloponnesian War,
written by Thucydides. Morgenthau also sees the necessity of balance of power.
Without it, states would go to war all the time. On one side there would be
rising states who would be arrogant enough to go to war, overestimating their
powers, and on the other hand states trying to keep the status quo who would be
defending there sovereignty. Politics for both Morgenthau and Thucydides is a
race of achieving great power domestically and internationally.
Interest
and justice go together for one main reason, without justice interest is
groundless and can drive a state to total disaster, due to its overconfidence.
This is the main factor that led Athens to its destruction, giving Sparta the
satisfaction of winning the war. This is an imperialistic mistake of many empires
and states which have fallen in the past, but also the reason why states in the
future will perish. Political actors should always be fair, especially
hegemonic powers and leaders. If they lose this virtue then they will not only
misplace its peoples’ trust but also the international community’s too. This
can only be achieved by worthy leaders who know the states’ limits and what
benefits its interests. Justice is important for all the states, not only for
the powerful ones. With it they can influence other actors, especially smaller
ones. There are many ways of achieving this but maintaining justice is the
biggest benefactor in international relations, creating a good relation between
state and people. It also helps the states to maximize interest, for example
economic benefits. Self control is important making world politics a stable and
peaceful arena where states can improve in every respect. Without it political
actors reach hubris, which leads inevitably to catastrophe, as it did with
Napoleon and Hitler.
Another
main factor in international relations is prudence. Morgenthau believed that
this is “the supreme virtue of politics”.[4]
With it politicians see clearer the consequences of their actions and also try
to make the proper decisions, without this meaning that they do not try to
satisfy their interests. Prudence is not a weakness but a virtue.
With
all of these being the ethical bases of realism we are able to understand
realism in depth but also understand its representatives who through experience
have examined international politics, giving us theories and ways of understanding
the world around us; why for example the tension between the two super powers
during the Cold War escalated, or why the USA invaded Iraq. Realism shows how
the world has functioned for more than 2500 years, confirming historically the
repetition of events and actions.
[1] Stefano Racchia, “Restraining Imperial Hubris: The Ethical Bases of
Realist International Relations Theory”, Constellations Volume14, No4, The Author.
Journal compilation (2007), p. 533
[2] Stefano Racchia, “Restraining Imperial Hubris: The Ethical Bases of
Realist International Relations Theory”, Constellations Volume14, No4, The
Author. Journal compilation (2007), p. 535
[3] Richard Ned Lebow, International Relations Theories,
(Oxford, Oxford University Press 2007), p.
55
[4] Stefano Racchia, “Restraining Imperial Hubris: The Ethical Bases of
Realist International Relations Theory”, Constellations Volume14, No4, The
Author. Journal compilation (2007), p. 542
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